Os Estudos de Tradução no
século XXI
A virada antropológica
Profª. Dr. Christiane Stallaert, Universidade de Leuven/Universidade de Antuérpia
A virada antropológica
Profª. Dr. Christiane Stallaert, Universidade de Leuven/Universidade de Antuérpia
•
Introdução
aos Estudos de Tradução
–
As
‘viradas’ teóricas e metodológicas
–
Antropologia
e Tradução
–
Introdução
a Sociologia da Tradução
•
Estudos
de caso
–
Etnografia
multisituada de conceitos em movimento. O caso do ‘casticismo’ ibérico
–
Traduzir
em paises multilingües
•
O
caso da Bélgica
•
O
caso da Espanha: País Basco e Andaluzia
–
Traduzir
a voz do perpetrador: Inquisição e Nazismo
Os estudos de
tradução
I. The
Turns of Translation Studies, Snell-Hornby, 2006
–
The
linguistic tradition (origins…)
–
The
pragmatic turn (1970s)
–
The
cultural turn (1980s)
–
The
‘interdiscipline’ (1990s)
–
TS
at the turn of the millenium:The U-turns: back to square one?
II.
C.Stallaert: ‘A virada antropológica’
–
1492
/ 1942 / 1992
–
‘TRANS’
Europa /
Bélgica / Flandres
Instituto
Superior de Tradutores e Interpretes Universidade de Antuérpia (1961- 2013) From
Translation to Translation Studies:
1. The
linguistic tradition:
•
Translation
training = language training
–
Linguistic
competence most important
–
No
much attention to cultural competence
•
(historically)
connected with bible studies
•
Importance
of ‘fidelity’ to ‘source text’
•
Ideal
of the ‘translator’s invisibility’ (L. Venuti)
–
Eurocentric
translation concept
•
Based on a series of
assumptions
•
Cfr. Maria Tymoczko, ‘Reconceptualizing
Translation Theory’, in: Theo Hermans, Translating
Others, Volume I, 13-32
Eurocentric translation
concept:
•
Assumption of monolingualism:
–
reflects
an Anglo-American model of linguistic (in)competence, equating nation with
language and national identity with linguistic provinciality (p.16-17)
–
translators
are necessary as mediators in interlingual and intercultural situations; they
mediate between two linguistic and cultural groups
•
The process of translation is a sort
of ‘black box’:
–
an
individual translator decodes a given message to be translated and recodes the
same message in a second language
–
concept
of translation as decoding/encoding process by a single translator
•
Assumption of professionality:
–
Translators
are generally educated in their art and they have professional standing: often
they learn their craft in a formal way, connected with schooling or training
that instructs the translator in language competence, standards of textuality,
norms of transposition and so forth
•
Assumption of equivalence:
–
identity
relationship between source text and translation (rather than a similarity
relationship which entails difference)
2.The pragmatic
turn (1970s):
•
Influenced
by the pragmatic turn in linguistics,cfr. ‘Pragmatics’:
–
Speech-act
theory (Dell Hymes, Gumperz,…)
•
Very
close to the field of intercultural communication
–
Cfr.
Edward Hall: verbal vs nonverbal communication
•
Interdisciplinarity:
Study of language enriched by insights from anthropology, philosophy,
sociology, psychology
–
Cfr.
‘Flemish school’: Jan Blommaert (anthropologist) & Jef Verschueren
(linguist)
•
Encouraged
the emancipation of TS both from linguistics and from comparative literature
–
Change
of paradigm into the world of communication, text and discourse
–
Holistic
notion of the text as part of the world around
From
comparative literature to translation studies: the Leuven Conference, 1976:
•
André Lefevere (1945-1996)
–
Professor
in the Department of Germanic Studies of the University of Texas in Austin
–
he
theorized translation as a form of rewriting
produced and read with a set of ideological and political constraints within
the target language cultural system.
•
José Lambert (1941- )
–
Department
of Roman Languages, KULeuven
–
CETRA
(Center for Translation Studies), KULeuven, 1989
–
Guest
professor at UFSC
•
Theo Hermans
–
Department
of Germanic Studies at University College of London
–
Founding
member of IATIS
International Association for Translation and
Intercultural Studies:
•
Executive Council and Founding
Members
–
ANNIE BRISSET, IATIS President (Ottawa)
–
MONA BAKER, IATIS
Co-Vicepresident (Manchester)
–
THEO HERMANS, Chair of IATIS Executive Council (London)
–
JAN BLOMMAERT, IATIS Executive Council Member (Ghent)
–
Journal: The Translator
Special Issues of The Translator (selection):
•
Volume 11, Number 2, 2005:
Special Issue. Bourdieu and the Sociology of Translation and Interpreting
3. The cultural turn (1980s):
•
The
Manipulation School
–
Low
Countries, UK
•
Thec Skopos Theory
–
Germany
•
The
model of translatorial action
–
Germany/Finland
•
Deconstruction,
or the ‘cannibalistic approach’
–
Brasil
The Manipulation School:
•
Theo
Hermans, The Manipulation of Literature, 1985
–
Authors
included: Gideon Toury, José Lambert, Hendrik van Gorp, Susan Bassnett, André
Lefevere
•
Key
words: descriptive, target-oriented, functional, systemic
–
Vs:
prescriptive, source-text oriented, linguistic, atomistic
•
Moving
from text to culture, cfr. G. Toury:
–
not
the linguistic features of the source text are the central issue, but the function
of the translation in the ‘target culture’
–
‘culture’:
the entire social context involved in the translation, along with the norms,
conventions, ideology and values of that society of ‘receptor system’
•
=
Starting-point for the sociological approach
Skopos Theory:
•
Katharina
Reis and Hans J. Vermeer, ‘Foundations of a General Theory of Translation’, 1984
–
Germersheim
school (Germany)
•
Functionalist
approach
•
‘Skopos’
(Greek: aim, purpose)
–
The
aim and purpose of a translation is determined by the needs and expectations of
the reader in his culture
–
‘equivalence’
is subordinated to this skopos
•
Concept
of culture is central to Skopos theory
–
Vermeer
views translation as a cultural transfer rather than a linguistic one, being
part of culture
–
Translator
should not be only bilingual, but also bicultural
Model of translatorial action:
•
Holz-Mänttäri
(native of Hamburg, lived in Finland)
•
Reduction
not only of the status of the source text, but of the entire language component
(cfr. idem Vermeer, Skopos)
–
Translation
is basically action, a form of intercultural communication whereby language is
not content or goal but the necessary instrument
–
Translation
as a form of communication across cultural barriers
•
Functional
approach: message is central, and not the linguistic items
•
This
theory has been described in English by Christina Schäffner, 1998
•
This
model reflects the real-life job of the professional translator (cfr.
translating instructions for use of a washing machine). The process can be
described as follows:
–
Translatorial
action is not linguistic transcoding, but consists of a whole complex of
actions involving team-work among specialists, including the client, or
initiator and the translator, who has the role of a professional expert in
text-design and as such assumes the responsibility of his/her product (Snell-H
2006:58-59)
Deconstruction
or the ‘cannibalistic’ approach:
•
‘Third
World Translation Model’
–
Elaborated
during the 1960s, Augusto and Haroldo de Campos (poets and translators) who
took up the ‘cannibalistic’ metaphor (1920s Anthropophagy Movement)
•
Anticipates
postcolonial theories
–
Cfr.
Rosemary Arrojo, ‘Oficina de Tradução’, 1986
•
Questions
the traditional translation theories
–
Challenges
the hierarchy of power between ‘original’ and translation
–
Questions
the sacrality of the source text
–
Translation
is no longer an activity that preserves the ‘original’ meaning of an
author, but one which sees its task in producing meanings
Borges, Pierre Menard, autor del Quijote
(El jardín de senderos que se bifurcan (1941; Ficciones, 1944)
(El jardín de senderos que se bifurcan (1941; Ficciones, 1944)
4. The ‘interdiscipline’
(1990s):
•
Importance
of the political context
–
1989/1991:
End of Cold War; Time of dialogue
–
LatAm:
Importance of Columbian quincentennial 1992
•
Interdisciplinary
orientation of TS gave rise to the term of ‘interdiscipline’
–
=
??
–
Cultural
Studies influence in TS
•
Postcolonial
Studies: Subaltern Studies Group (SSG)
•
Cfr.
[Edward Said, Orientalism, 1978]; Homi Bhabha; Gayatri Spivak
Some examples:
Cultural Studies and Translation, 1992
•
Mary
Louise Pratt
–
Imperial
Eyes. Travel Writing and Transculturation (1992)
•
Tejaswini
Neranjana
–
Siting
Translation. History, Post-structuralism, and the Colonial Context (1992)
•
Samia
Mehrez
–
Translation
and the colonial experience
(1992)
5. TS at the
turn of the millenium?
(Snell-Hornby)
(Snell-Hornby)
•
Translation
as a pervasive metaphor
–
What
is non-translated language?
•
Exporting
Translation Studies
–
The
translation turn in Cultural Studies and Anthropology
II. Translation and
Anthropology:
"The central aim of the
anthropological enterprise has always been to understand and comprehend a
culture or cultures other than one's own. This inevitably involves either the
translation of words, ideas and meanings from one culture to another, or the
translation to a set of analytical concepts. Translation is central to 'writing
about culture'. However, curiously, the role that translation has played in
anthropology has not been systematically addressed by practitioners, even
though translation has been so central to data-gathering procedures, and to the
search for meanings and understandings, which is the goal of
anthropology".
(Rubel y Rosman, Translating
Cultures, 2003)
Kate Sturge, ‘Translation
Strategies in Ethnography’, in: The Translator, 1997, 3 (1), 21-38:
•
Ethnography
always involves translation
–
In
its narrowest sense: making words in one language accessible to speakers of
another
–
In
a broad sense: metaphor of the ethnographer as ‘translator of cultures’ (cfr.
Edmund Leach, quoted in Asad, Sturge p.22)
–
Ethnographic
translation = a dual translation
–
From
the oral to the written form
–
From
one language to another
–
basic
dilemmas of translation are shared by ethnographers, hence:
–
recent
work in translation theory could be applied to ethnographic texts
The ‘turns’
in Anthropology:
•
Ethnographic
turn (Malinowski):
–
‘participant
observation’
–
importance
of linguistic competence of the ethnographer
•
Textual
turn:
–
Interpretive,
semiotic approach
–
Textualization
of culture: studying culture as if it were a literary tekst; ethnography as
‘reading’
–
Clifford
Geertz, The interpretation of cultures (1973)
–
Influence
of French theory (philosophy of language): Foucault, Derrida...
•
Reflexive
turn:
–
Ethnography
as ‘writing’
•
James
Clifford & George Marcus, Writing Culture. The poetics and politics of
ethnography, 1986
•
Clifford
Geertz, Work and Lifes. The Anthropologist as Author (1988)
–
Auto-ethnography
•
Ethnographer
as object of analysis
–
Native
anthropology
•
ethical
dimension: who has the right to speak
•
Translational
turn (?):
–
Ethnography
as ‘translation’
•
Talal
Asad, ‘The concept of Cultural Translation in British Social Anthropology’,
1986
–
Cfr
Snell-Hornby: pervasiveness of the translation metaphor
–
Context
: 1992: ‘globalization’
1992. ‘Globalization’:
New research
paradigm in Anthropology/Cultural Studies
•
Benjamin
Barber, ‘Jihad vs. McWorld’ (1992)
–
Globalism
vs tribalism as ‘the two axial principles of our age’
–
‘glocalization’
–
Cfr.
localization vs internationalization
•
Arjun
Appadurai, Modernity at Large (1996)
–
‘-scapes’:
dimensions of global discontinued cultural flows
•
Benedict
Anderson (Imagined Communities)
•
Ethno-,
media-, finan-, ideo-, techno-
•
Homi
Bhabha, ‘The Third Space’ (1994)
–
culture
= ‘transnational and translational’
‘Third Space’ = the space of
translation:
•
Translation
and hybridity
–
all
forms of culture are continually in a process of hybridity…
–
the
process of cultural hybridity gives rise to something different, something new
and unrecognisable, a new area of negotiation of meaning and representation
–
=
the third space
•
Translation:
–
=
activity of displacement, de-centering
G. Marcus,
‘Ethnography in/of the World System. The emergence of multi-sited ethnography’
(1995)
George E.
Marcus, ‘Ethnography in/of the World System. The emergence of multi-sited
ethnography’ (1995), in: Ethnography through Thick and Thin, 1998
•
Cultural
logics so much sought after in anthropology are always multiply produced (…). Strategies
of quite literally following connections, associations, and putative
relationships are thus at the very heart of designing multisited ethnographic
research (p.81)
•
Enhanced
challenge of translation (p.84)
–
The
function of translation (from one cultural idiom or language to another) is
enhanced since it is no longer practiced in the primary, dualistic ‘them-us’
frame of conventional ethnography but requires considerably more nuancing and
shading as the practice of translation connects the several sites that the
research explores along unexpected and even dissonant fractures of social
location. Indeed, the persuasiveness of the broader field that any such
ethnography maps and constructs is in its capacity to make connections through
translations and tracings among distinctive discourses from site to site.
•
Multi-sited
fieldwork: = multilingual
•
This
move toward comparison embedded in the multi-sited ethnography stimulates
accounts of cultures composed in a landscape for which there is as yet
no developed theoretical conception or descriptive model (p.86)
•
Interdisciplinary arenas and new objects of study.
Modes of construction (p.86…)
–
Follow
the people
•
Cfr
migration studies
–
Follow
the thing
•
Commodities,
works of art, intellectual property,…
•
This
technique is at the heart of Wallerstein’s method for study of the world-system
–
Follow
the metaphor
–
Follow
the plot, story, allegory
–
Follow
the life or biography
–
Follow
the conflict
Example: Carol
Gluck & Anna Lowenhaupt Tsing (eds.), Words in Motion: Toward a Global
Lexicon, 2009
•
On
the premise that words have the power to make worlds, each essay in this book
follows a word as it travels around the globe and across time. Scholars from
five disciplines address thirteen societies to highlight the social and
political life of words in Asia, Europe, and the Middle East, from the
mid-nineteenth century to the present. The approach is consciously
experimental, in that rigorously tracking specific words in specific settings
frequently leads in unexpected directions and alters conventional depictions of
global modernity.
•
Such
words as security in Brazil, responsibility in Japan, community in Thailand,
and hijāb in France changed the societies in which they moved even as the words
were changed by them. Some words threatened to launch wars, as injury did in
imperial Britain’s relations with China in the nineteenth century. Others, such
as secularism, worked in silence to agitate for political change in
twentieth-century Morocco. Words imposed or imported from abroad could be
transformed by those who wielded them to oppose the very powers that first
introduced them, as happened in Turkey, Indonesia, and the Philippines. Taken
together, this selection of fourteen essays reveals commonality as well as
distinctiveness across modern societies, making the world look different from
the interdisciplinary and transnational perspective of “words in motion.”
CONFERENCE: Key Cultural Texts in Translation
University of Leicester, April 29-30 2014
“Key Cultural
Texts in Translation” network based at the Research Centre for Translation and
Interpreting Studies (RTISt), the University of Leicester
•
The
conference will focus on the ways in which cultures define and re-define
themselves through the representation in texts and other artifacts (films;
paintings ...) of their key concepts. What happens to the images of the initial
and the receiving cultures when these representations of key concepts are
translated? How are key concepts re-represented? What can we learn from this
about how peoples can adjust mutually in times of meetings and migration?
•
….
(Christiane
Stallaert, Universidade de Antuérpia, Universidade de Leuven, Bélgica)
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